Effect of nutmeg essential oil (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) on methane production, rumen fermentation, and nutrient digestibility in vitro.

The study evaluated the effect of adding of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) essential oil (NEO) as a feed additive on methane production, rumen fermentation parameters, rumen enzyme activity, and nutrient digestibility in vitro. This study was divided into three treatments based on the level of NEO addition, which included 0 µL/L (T0), 100 µL/L (T1), and 200 µL/L (T2). The feed substrate composition consisted of king grass as forage and concentrate in a 60:40 ratio. Feed fermentation was conducted using the Menke and Steingass gas production and two-step Tilley and Terry in-vitro digestibility technique. The data obtained from the study were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and if there were differences between means, they were further assessed using DMRT. The results showed that T2 treatment significantly decreased (P < 0.05) ammonia (NH3) levels, total VFA, acetate, propionate, butyrate, and microbial protein (P < 0.05). Methane production and the activity of rumen protease enzyme significantly decreased (P < 0.05) at T1 and T2 treatment. The T2 treatment significantly reduced (P < 0.05) protein digestibility (IVCPD) at 48 h, while IVCPD at 96 h significantly increased (P < 0.05). On the other hand, the addition of nutmeg essential oil did not effect the activity of the amylase, carboxymethyl cellulase, and ß-glucosidase enzymes, as well as the in-vitro digestibility of dry matter (IVDMD), crude fiber (IVCFD), and organic matter (IVOMD). The conclusion drawn from this study is that the optimum level for NEO is 200 µL/L, which can reduce methane production and increase crude protein digestibility at 96 h without any negative effect on rumen fermentation and nutrient digestibility.

Impact of metformin on cardiovascular and kidney outcome based on kidney function status in type 2 diabetic patients: a multicentric, retrospective cohort study.

Metformin is the primary treatment for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) due to its effectiveness in improving clinical outcomes in patients with preserved renal function, however, the evidence on the effectiveness of metformin in various renal functions is lacking. We performed a retrospective, multicenter, observational study used data of patients with T2DM obtained from three tertiary hospitals' databases. Patients given metformin within run-in periods and with at least one additional prescription formed the metformin cohort. A control cohort comprised those prescribed oral hypoglycemic agents other than metformin and never subsequently received a metformin prescription within observation period. For patients without diabetic nephropathy (DN), the outcomes included events of DN, major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), and major adverse kidney events (MAKE). After 1:1 propensity matching, 1994 individuals each were selected for the metformin and control cohorts among T2DM patients without baseline DN. The incidence rate ratios (IRR) for DN, MACEs, and MAKEs between cohorts were 1.06 (95% CI 0.96-1.17), 0.76 (0.64-0.92), and 0.45 (0.33-0.62), respectively. In cohorts with renal function of CKD 3A, 3B, and 4, summarized IRRs of MACEs and MAKEs were 0.70 (0.57-0.87) and 0.39 (0.35-0.43) in CKD 3A, 0.83 (0.74-0.93) and 0.44 (0.40-0.48) in CKD 3B, and 0.71 (0.60-0.85) and 0.45 (0.39-0.51) in CKD 4. Our research indicates that metformin use in T2DM patients across various renal functions consistently correlates with a decreased risk of overt DN, MACE, and MAKE.

Phytoconstituents and Ergosterol Biosynthesis-Targeting Antimicrobial Activity of Nutmeg (Myristica fragans Houtt.) against Phytopathogens.

In recent years, nutmeg (Myristica fragans Houtt.) has attracted considerable attention in the field of phytochemistry due to its diverse array of bioactive compounds. However, the potential application of nutmeg as a biorational for crop protection has been insufficiently explored. This study investigated the constituents of a nutmeg hydroethanolic extract via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and vibrational spectroscopy. The research explored the extract's activity against phytopathogenic fungi and oomycetes, elucidating its mechanism of action. The phytochemical profile revealed fatty acids (including tetradecanoic acid, 9-octadecenoic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, and octadecanoic acid), methoxyeugenol, and elemicin as the main constituents. Previously unreported phytochemicals included veratone, gelsevirine, and montanine. Significant radial growth inhibition of mycelia was observed against Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum acutatum, Diplodia corticola, Phytophthora cinnamomi, and especially against Fusarium culmorum. Mode of action investigation, involving Saccharomyces cerevisiae labeled positively with propidium iodide, and a mutant strain affected in ERG6, encoding sterol C-24 methyltransferase, suggested that the extract induces a necrotic type of death and targets ergosterol biosynthesis. The evidence presented underscores the potential of nutmeg as a source of new antimicrobial agents, showing particular promise against F. culmorum.

Facile fabrication of carboxymethylcellulose/ZnO/g-C3N4 containing nutmeg extract with photocatalytic performance for infected wound healing.

New topical antibacterial agents are required to inhibit and development of bacteria and also promoting the wound healing process. This study was evaluating the healing effect of Myristica fragrans extract coated with carboxymethyl cellulose, zinc oxide and graphite carbon nitride (CMC/ZnO/g-C3N4/MyR) by photocatalytic process on the healing process of full-thickness infectious excision wounds in mice. Nanosheets were prepared and physicochemical properties were evaluated. Safety, in vitro release, antibacterial activities under in vitro and in vivo condition, wound contraction, histopathological properties and the protein expressions of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), collagen 1A (COL1A) and CD31 were also evaluated. Physicochemical properties confirmed their successful synthesis. Nanosheets exhibited antibacterial activity under in vitro and in vivo conditions. The formulations containing CMC/ZnO/g-C3N4/MyR, significantly (P < 0.05) competed with standard ointment of mupirocin for accelerating the wound healing process due to their effects on bacterial count and the expression of TNF-α and also accelerating the proliferative phase. This structure can be used as a safe structure in combination with other agents for accelerating the wound healing process following future clinical studies.

Effect of Simmering Technology on Components and Activity of Myristica fragrans Houtt.

This study aims to optimize the processing of Myristica fragrans Houtt. by talcum powder simmering using single-factor and orthogonal experimental methods, and the overall desirability values of dehydrodiisoeugenol and essential oils content were selected as indicators of the process. The new process reduced the total content of the three toxic components, namely myristicin, safrole and elemicin, from 1.91% to 1.16% before and after processing, indicating that the toxic components were reduced by 39%. The IC50 of the essential oils before and after processing were 1.002 ± 0.05 and 0.233 ± 0.05 mg/mL for DPPH scavenging activity and 0.132 ± 0.04 and 0.057 ± 0.05 mg/mL for ABTS scavenging activity, respectively. And the absorbance of the antioxidant activity against Ferric reducing power ranged from 0.213 to 0.709 and from 0.225 to 0.755, respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration for Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus pumilus and Escherichia coli were all lower after processing than before. The antioxidant activity and antibacterial activity of the essential oils after processing were better than before. The results of the survival of zebrafish embryos at different concentrations of essential oils at 0-168 h post fertilisation were higher after processing than before. These findings suggest that processing plays the role of reducing toxicity and increasing beneficial effects. They provide a scientific basis not only for the processing of M. fragrans, but also for the processing of other foods.

[Efficacy of Bright Greenish-Yellow Fluorescence Sorting on Mycotoxin-Contaminated Nutmeg Selection and Characterization of Fungal Flora Related to Mycotoxin Production].

Spices have been known to be highly contaminated commodities with mycotoxins. The Codex Alimentarius reports that nutmeg is particularly contaminated with aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA). To eliminate contaminated commodities, visual sorting and bright greenish-yellow fluorescence (BGYF) sorting are used as low-cost technologies in production engineering. In Indonesia, nutmeg is mainly sorted by visual sorting and classified into three grades according to the Indonesian national standards, with importers further defining their own brand as imported products. In this study, we evaluate the efficacy of BGYF sorting as a further selection method to reduce AFs and OTA using the importer's own brand. Further, the level of these mycotoxins and the relationship between fungal flora and mycotoxin contamination were examined. These results showed that BGYF sorting effectively reduces AFs as well as OTA. In addition, BGYF-positive groups were infected by Aspergillus sections Flavi, Nigri, and Circumdati.

Malabaricones from the fruit of Myristica cinnamomea King as potential agents against Acanthamoeba castellanii.

Acanthamoeba castellanii is an opportunistic free-living amoeba (FLA) pathogen which can cause fatal central nervous system (CNS) infection, granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) and potentially blinding ocular infection, Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK). Acanthamoeba species remain a challenging protist to treat due to the unavailability of safe and effective therapeutic drugs and their ability to protect themselves in the cyst stage. Natural products and their secondary metabolites play a pivotal role in drug discovery against various pathogenic microorganisms. In the present study, the ethyl acetate extract of Myristica cinnamomea King fruit was evaluated against A. castellanii (ATCC 50492), showing an IC50 of 45.102 ± 4.62 µg/mL. Previously, the bio-guided fractionation of the extract resulted in the identification of three active compounds, namely Malabaricones (A-C). The isolated and thoroughly characterized acylphenols were evaluated for their anti-amoebic activity against A. castellanii for the first time. Among tested compounds, Malabaricone B (IC50 of 101.31 ± 17.41 µM) and Malabaricone C (IC50 of 49.95 ± 6.33 µM) showed potent anti-amoebic activity against A. castellanii trophozoites and reduced their viability up-to 75 and 80 %, respectively. Moreover, both extract and Malabaricones also significantly (p < 0.05) inhibit the encystation and excystation of A. castellanii, while showed minimal toxicity against human keratinocyte cells (HaCaT cells) at lower tested concentrations. Following that, the explanation of the possible mechanism of action of purified compounds were assessed by detection of the state of chromatin. Hoechst/PI 33342 double staining showed that necrotic cell death occurred in A. castellanii trophozoites after 8 h treatment of Malabaricones (A-C). These findings demonstrate that Malabaricones B and C could serve as promising therapeutic options against A. castellanii infections.

Aspirin for primary prevention in patients with high cardiovascular risk: insights from CORE-Thailand registry.

Aspirin may be considered for primary prevention in non-elderly patients with high cardiovascular risk. However, contemporary management aimed at aggressive cardiovascular risk factor control may alter benefit-risk ratio of aspirin. Therefore, we aimed to examine the effect of aspirin for primary prevention on the long-term MACEs in a large cohort registry. Cohort Of patients with high Risk for cardiovascular Events (CORE-Thailand) registry is a prospective, multicenter, observational, longitudinal study of Thai patients with high atherosclerotic risk. Patients with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases were excluded. Among 4259 patients with multiple cardiovascular risk factors, 1945 (45.7%) patients used aspirin. After propensity score matching, there were 3228 patients remained in post-matching analysis. During the median follow-up period of 58.2 months, we demonstrated that aspirin use increased risk of long-term MACEs in pre-matching cohort (unadjusted HR 1.76, 95% CI 1.43-2.17, P < 0.001) and post-matching cohort (HR 1.66 (1.31-2.10), P < 0.001). In addition, patients taking aspirin had a higher risk of bleeding than non-aspirin users in pre-matching cohort (unadjusted HR 2.28, 95% CI 1.09-4.75, P = 0.028). We demonstrated that aspirin was associated with increased risk of long-term MACEs in patients with multiple cardiovascular risk factors. Due to the non-randomized design, our results should be interpreted with caution.

Insights into the inhibitory activities of neolignans and diarylnonanoid derivatives from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) seeds on soluble epoxide hydrolase using in vitro and in silico approaches.

Two new neolignans, myrifralignans F-G (14 and 18), four new diarylnonanoid derivatives, myrifragranones A-D (21-24), and 18 known compounds were isolated and structurally elucidated from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) seeds. The absolute configurations of these secondary metabolites were determined using the electronic circular dichroism technique. The inhibitory potential of these isolated compounds on soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) was investigated for the first time. Among them, malabaricones B and C (19 and 20) and four new compounds 21-24 displayed inhibitory activities against sEH, with IC50 values ranging from 14.24 to 46.35 µM. Additionally, the binding mechanism, key binding interactions, stability, and dynamic behaviour of the active compounds with the sEH enzyme were analysed using in silico molecular docking and dynamics simulations. Our findings suggest that nutmeg could become a promising natural source for discovering and developing new sEH inhibitors.

Detection of Mildewed Nutmeg Internal Quality during Storage Using an Electronic Nose Combined with Chemical Profile Analysis.

Internal mildewed nutmeg is difficult to perceive without cutting the nutmeg open and examining it carefully, which poses a significant risk to public health. At present, macroscopic identification and chromatographic analysis are applied to determine whether nutmeg is moldy or not. However, the former relies on a human panel, with the disadvantages of subjectivity and empirical dependence, whilst the latter is generally time-consuming and requires organic solvents. Therefore, it is urgent to develop a rapid and feasible approach for evaluating the quality and predicting mildew in nutmeg. In this study, the quality and odor characteristics of five groups of nutmeg samples with different degrees of mildew were analyzed by using the responses of an electronic nose combined with chemical profiling. The main physicochemical indicators, such as the levels of α-pinene, ß-pinene, elemicin, and dehydro-di-isoeugenol, were determined. The results revealed that the contents of α-pinene, ß-pinene, and elemicin changed significantly with the extension of storage time. Through the use of an electronic nose and HS-GC-MS technology to assess the overall odor characteristics of nutmeg samples, it was found that the production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as ammonia/organic amines, carbon monoxide, ethanol, and hydrogen sulfide, as well as changes in the terpene and phenylpropene components of the nutmeg itself, may be the material basis for the changes in odor. The accuracy of the qualitative classification model for the degree of mildew in nutmeg was higher than 90% according to the electronic nose data combined with different machine learning algorithms. Quantitative models were established for predicting the contents of the chemical components, and models based on a BP neural network (BPNN), the support vector machine (SVM), and the random forest algorithm (RF) all showed good performance in predicting the concentrations of these chemical components, except for dehydro-di-isoeugenol. The BPNN performed effectively in predicting the storage time of nutmeg on the basis of the E-nose's responses, with an RMSE and R2 of 0.268 and 0.996 for the training set, and 0.317 and 0.993 for the testing set, respectively. The results demonstrated that the responses of the electronic nose (E-nose) had a high correlation with the internal quality of nutmeg. This work proposes a quick and non-destructive evaluation method for the quality of nutmeg, which has high accuracy in discriminating between different degrees of mold in nutmeg and is conducive to early detection and warning of moldy phenomena.

Detection of major psychoactive compounds (safrole, myristicin, and elemicin) of nutmeg in human serum via GC-MS/MS using MonoSpin® extraction: Application in a nutmeg poisoning case.

Nutmeg is an inexpensive, readily available spice used in a variety of recipes. However, the use of nutmeg powder as a recreational drug for its hallucinogenic effects is resulting in an increase in overdose rates. We encountered a male patient being hospitalized after ingesting 75 g of commercially available nutmeg powder with the intent of committing suicide. There are no available reports documenting the toxic or comatose-fatal blood concentrations or time-course of drug action in cases of nutmeg poisoning. Therefore, to improve patient management, we endeavored to determine the blood serum levels and time-course of the major psychoactive compounds (safrole, myristicin, and elemicin) present in nutmeg. We designed a simple and reliable method using the MonoSpin® extraction kit and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to detect the presence of these psychoactive compounds in human serum. The method had detection and quantitation limits of 0.14-0.16 and 0.5 ng/mL (lowest calibration points), respectively. The calibration curves displayed excellent linearity (0.996-0.997) for all three compounds at 0.5-300 ng/mL blood concentrations. The intra- and inter-day precision values for quality assurance were in the ranges of 2.4-11 % and 2.5-11 %, respectively; bias ranged from - 2.6 % to 2.1 %. Blood serum levels of safrole, myristicin, and elemicin were measured at admission (approximately 8 h post-ingestion) and approximately 94 h after a post-admission fluid therapy to evaluate their biological half-lives. We developed this method to obtain information on the psychoactive constituents of nutmeg and, thereby, determine the toxicokinetic parameters of nutmeg in a case of nutmeg poisoning.

Preparation and characterization of inclusion complex of Myristica fragrans Houtt. (nutmeg) essential oil with 2-hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin.

Nutmeg essential oil (NEO) is a natural condimentwith versatile biological activities. However, the application of NEO in food has several limitations due to its poor stability and low aqueous solubility. To overcome the shortcomings, this paper focused on the preparation of the inclusion complex (IC) of NEO with 2-hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HP-ß-CD) by the coprecipitation method. The optimal condition was inclusion temperature 36 ℃, time 247 min, stirring speed 520 r/min, and wall-core ratio 12:1, resulting in a recovery of 80.63%. The formation of IC was verified by various methods such as scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance. The improvement of thermal stability, antioxidant, and nitrite scavenging activities of NEO after encapsulation was proven. Moreover, the controlled release of NEO from IC can be implemented by regulating the temperature and relative humidity. Overall, NEO/HP-ß-CD IC has great application potential in food industries.

Myristica fragrans Extract Inhibits Platelet Desialylation and Activation to Ameliorate Sepsis-Associated Thrombocytopenia in a Murine CLP-Induced Sepsis Model.

Sepsis, characterized by an uncontrolled host inflammatory response to infections, remains a leading cause of death in critically ill patients worldwide. Sepsis-associated thrombocytopenia (SAT), a common disease in patients with sepsis, is an indicator of disease severity. Therefore, alleviating SAT is an important aspect of sepsis treatment; however, platelet transfusion is the only available treatment strategy for SAT. The pathogenesis of SAT involves increased platelet desialylation and activation. In this study, we investigated the effects of Myristica fragrans ethanol extract (MF) on sepsis and SAT. Desialylation and activation of platelets treated with sialidase and adenosine diphosphate (platelet agonist) were assessed using flow cytometry. The extract inhibited platelet desialylation and activation via inhibiting bacterial sialidase activity in washed platelets. Moreover, MF improved survival and reduced organ damage and inflammation in a mouse model of cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis. It also prevented platelet desialylation and activation via inhibiting circulating sialidase activity, while maintaining platelet count. Inhibition of platelet desialylation reduces hepatic Ashwell-Morell receptor-mediated platelet clearance, thereby reducing hepatic JAK2/STAT3 phosphorylation and thrombopoietin mRNA expression. This study lays a foundation for the development of plant-derived therapeutics for sepsis and SAT and provides insights into sialidase-inhibition-based sepsis treatment strategies.

Malabaricone C, a constituent of spice Myristica malabarica, exhibits anti-inflammatory effects via modulation of cellular redox.

The present study primarily focuses on the efficacy of Malabaricone C (Mal C) as an anti-inflammatory agent. Mal C inhibited mitogen-induced T-cell proliferation and cytokine secretion. Mal C significantly reduced cellular thiols in lymphocytes. N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) restored cellular thiol levels and abrogated Mal C-mediated inhibition of T-cell proliferation and cytokine secretion. Physical interaction between Mal C and NAC was evinced from HPLC and spectral analysis. Mal C treatment significantly inhibited concanavalin A-induced phosphorylation of ERK/JNK and DNA binding of NF-κB. Administration of Mal C to mice suppressed T-cell proliferation and effector functions ex vivo. Mal C treatment did not alter the homeostatic proliferation of T-cells in vivo but completely abrogated acute graft-versus-host disease (GvHD)-associated morbidity and mortality. Our studies indicate probable use of Mal C for prophylaxis and treatment of immunological disorders caused due to hyper-activation of T-cells.

FEMA GRAS assessment of derivatives of basil, nutmeg, parsley, tarragon and related allylalkoxybenzene-containing natural flavor complexes.

In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a program for the re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavoring ingredients in food. In this publication, tenth in the series, NFCs containing a high percentage of at least one naturally occurring allylalkoxybenzene constituent with a suspected concern for genotoxicity and/or carcinogenicity are evaluated. In a related paper, ninth in the series, NFCs containing anethole and/or eugenol and relatively low percentages of these allylalkoxybenzenes are evaluated. The Panel applies the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept and evaluates relevant toxicology data on the NFCs and their respective constituent congeneric groups. For NFCs containing allylalkoxybenzene constituent(s), the estimated intake of the constituent is compared to the TTC for compounds with structural alerts for genotoxicity and when exceeded, a margin of exposure (MOE) is calculated. BMDL10 values are derived from benchmark dose analyses using Bayesian model averaging for safrole, estragole and methyl eugenol using EPA's BMDS software version 3.2. BMDL10 values for myristicin, elemicin and parsley apiole were estimated by read-across using relative potency factors. Margins of safety for each constituent congeneric group and MOEs for each allylalkoxybenzene constituent for each NFC were determined that indicate no safety concern. The scope of the safety evaluation contained herein does not include added use in dietary supplements or any products other than food. Ten NFCs, derived from basil, estragon (tarragon), mace, nutmeg, parsley and Canadian snakeroot were determined or affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.

Chemical Synthesis Enables the Configurational Determination of Myristriol, a Highly Oxygenated Phenylpropanoid from Myristica fragrans Houtt.

A new phenylpropanoid, myristriol (1), along with 11 known ones were isolated from the seed kernel of Myristica fragrans Houtt. Their chemical structures were clearly elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis. In which, the relative configuration of 1 was finally determined as erythro-1 by comparison the NMR data of two synthetic erythro- and threo-diastereoisomers with that of natural 1.

Inhibitory and antioxidative capacity of nutmeg extracts on reduction of lipid oxidation and heterocyclic amines in pan-roasted beef patties.

Identification and inhibition of mutagenic and carcinogenic heterocyclic amines (HCAs) from pan-roasted beef patties were performed by adding (0.02%) tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ) and (0.05%) ethanol-extracted nutmeg (ENE) using HPLC and principal component analysis. Ten HCAs, including six polar and four non-polar, were assessed. The addition of (0.05%) ENE significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the cooking loss and shrinkage of patties during cooking and reduced the total formation HCAs by 73.97%, which proved the significant (P < 0.05) inhibitory effect as a natural antioxidant against lipid oxidation and HCA formation compared to TBHQ. The DPPH radical-scavenging activity, total phenolic content, and available active metabolites of ENE were estimated. Furthermore, a positive correlation was observed between pH, level of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, and HCA formation in both the groups. TBHQ and ENE were significant HCAs inhibitors (P < 0.001), but ENE showed resilient oxidative stability during refrigeration storage. Therefore, ENE can be used to reduce HCAs formation in pan-roasted beef patties.

Effect of Grinding Process Parameters and Storage Time on Extraction of Antioxidants from Ginger and Nutmeg.

The aim of this study was to optimize the grinding process parameters (mesh size of grinder sieve (X1), the peripheral velocity of the grinding wheels (X2)), and the storage time (X3) of ground ginger rhizome and nutmeg to obtain ethanol and ethanol-water extracts with improved antioxidant properties. The optimal conditions were estimated using response surface methodology (RSM) based on a three-variable Box-Behnken design (BBD) in order to maximize the antioxidant capacity (AC) determined by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) methods, and the total phenolic content (TPC) was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu (F-C) method in spice extracts. Additionally, the phenolic acid profiles in extracts from optimized conditions were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). It was found that the optimal preparation conditions for antioxidant extraction were dependent on the spice source and solvent type. The best antioxidant properties in nutmeg extracts were achieved for X1 = 1.0 mm, X2 = 40-41 Hz and X3 = 7 days, whereas the optimized parameters for ginger extracts were more varied (1.0-2.0 mm, 43-50 Hz and 1-9 days, respectively). The ginger extracts contained 1.5-1.8 times more phenolic acids, and vanillic, ferulic, gallic, and p-OH-benzoic acids were dominant. In contrast, the nutmeg extracts were rich in protocatechuic, vanillic, and ferulic acids.

Chemical composition, antibacterial efficacy, and antioxidant capacity of essential oil and oleoresin from Monodora myristica and Tetrapleura tetraptera in Southeast Nigeria.

Specific to the West African sub-region, previous studies involving fruit, stem, and bark of Tetrapleura tetraptera as well as seeds of Monodora myristica have largely focused on phytochemical properties of aqueous and methanolic and ethanolic extracts. To supplement existing information, the chemical composition, antibacterial efficacy (tested against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus), and antioxidant capacity (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH∙) radical scavenging, ferric reducing power, and total antioxidant capacity) of essential oil and oleoresin extracted from T. tetraptera fruit and M. myristica seeds cultivated in Southeast Nigeria, were studied. Essential oil and oleoresin were respectively extracted by steam distillation and aqueous maceration. By way of gas chromatograph mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis, the chemical compounds from essential oil and oleoresin from M. myristica and T. Tetraptera samples totaled 6 and 5, as well as 27 and 16, respectively. Besides the oleoresin of M. myristica and the essential oil of T. tetraptera showing some resistance against S. aureus, the oleoresins seemed highly susceptible to E. coli-all of which demonstrated concentration-dependence to the antibacterial inhibition zone. Scavenging DPPH radical, reduction power activity, and total antioxidant capacity increased with essential oil and oleoresin extracts' concentrations, which positions M. myristica and T. tetraptera spices as very promising for food preservation, especially against autoxidation and microbial spoilage.